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Lava tube

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Valentine Cave, a lava tube in Lava Beds National Monument, California shows the classic tube shape; the grooves on the wall mark former flow levels.
Thurston Lava Tube in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii. The step mark, more visible on the right wall, indicates the depth at which the lava flowed for a period of time.
Rare characteristics of lava tubes are lava pillars. This is the Manjanggul lava pillar located in the Manjanggul lava tubes, on the island of Jeju-do, Korea.
Lavacicles on the ceiling of Mushpot Cave in Lava Beds National Monument
Close-up of a skylight on a coastal plain, with lava stalactites forming on the roof of the tube, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
Entrance of a lava tube, Big island, Hawaii

A lava tube, or more rarely called pyroduct[1], is defined as a 'roofed conduit through which molten lava travels away from its vent'.[2] If lava in the tube drains out, it will leave an empty cave. Lava tubes are common in low-viscosity volcanic systems. Lava tubes are incredibly important as they are able to transport molten lava much further away from the eruptive vent than lava channels. A tube-forming lava flow can emplace on longer distance due to the presence of a solid crust protecting the molten lava from atmospheric cooling.[3][4] Lava tubes need to be accounted when preparing hazard maps and managing eruptive crisis.

Formation

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A lava tube is a type of lava cave formed when a low-viscosity lava flow develops a continuous and hard crust, which thickens and forms a roof above the still-flowing lava stream. Three main formation mechanisms have been described:[2][5][6][7][8] (1) roofing over a lava channel, (2) pāhoehoe lobe extension or (3) lava flow inflation.

(1) When erupted from the vent, lava usually flows in channels. While the core of the channel tend to stay very hot, its sides cool down rapidly forming solidified walls called levees. Depending on the activity of the channel, three ways to form a lava tube are possible. If the level of lava flowing inside the channel is stable for a long time, the surface will start to solidify from the levees toward the center of the channel, slowly forming a solid crust. If the level of lava is irregular, the overspills of lava on the side levees will make them grow and join to cover the channel. Another way to close the channel is by accumulation of floating surface crusts. This type of lava tubes tend to be closer to the eruptive vent.

(2) When pahoehoe lava emplace, it sometimes form lobes. The formation of aligned pahoehoe lobes that are continuously fed by molten lava can form lava tubes.

(3) During an eruption, lava flows emplace and their sides rapidly cool down and solidy leading to the inflation of the flow that is still fed by molten lava. The surface of the flow solidify forming a crust which will thicken and lead to the formation of a lava tube.

Characteristics

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A broad lava-flow field often form a lava tube system that consists of a main lava tube and a series of smaller tubes that supply lava to the front of one or more separate flows. When the supply of lava stops at the end of an eruption or lava is diverted elsewhere, lava in the tube system sometimes drains downslope and leaves partially or fully empty caves.

Such drained tubes commonly exhibit numerous internal features that can give information on the activity that happened within the tube.[9][6] Wall linings are thin layer of lava that recover the walls and ceiling of a tube. They form when the tube drain. Each wall lining correspond to a cycle of drainage and refilling of the tube. Step marks on the walls indicate the various depths at which the lava flowed, known as lava benches, flow ledges or flow lines depending on how prominently they protrude from the walls. Lava tubes generally have pāhoehoe floors, although this may often be covered in breakdown from the ceiling. A variety of stalactite, generally known as lavacicles, can be observed inside lava tubes. They can be of the splash, "shark tooth", or tubular varieties. Lavacicles are the most common of lava tube internal features. Drip stalagmites may form under tubular lava stalactites, and the latter may grade into a form known as a tubular lava helictite. A runner is a bead of lava that is extruded from a small opening and then runs down a wall.

Lava tubes may also contain mineral deposits that most commonly take the form of crusts or small crystals, and less commonly, as stalactites and stalagmites. Some stalagmites may contain a central conduit and are interpreted as hornitos extruded from the tube floor.[10]

Lava tubes can be up to 15 meters (50 ft) wide, though are often narrower, and run anywhere from 1 to 15 meters (3 to 50 ft) below the surface. Lava tubes can also be extremely long; one tube from the Mauna Loa 1859 flow enters the ocean about 50 kilometers (30 mi) from its eruption point, and the Cueva del Viento–Sobrado system on Teide, Tenerife island, is over 18 kilometers (11 mi) long, due to extensive braided maze areas at the upper zones of the system.

A lava tube system in Kiama, Australia, consists of over 20 tubes, many of which are breakouts of a main lava tube. The largest of these lava tubes is 2 meters (7 ft) in diameter and has columnar jointing due to the large cooling surface. Other tubes have concentric and radial jointing features. The tubes are infilled due to the low slope angle of emplacement.

Extraterrestrial lava tubes

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Lunar lava tubes have been discovered[11] and have been studied as possible human habitats, providing natural shielding from radiation.[12] Several holes on the lunar surface, including one in the Marius Hills region, have been observed with angled satellite imagery to lead into voids wider than the holes themselves.[13][14] These are considered as possible collapses into lunar lava tubes.[15][16][17]

Martian lava tubes are associated with innumerable lava flows and lava channels on the flanks of Olympus Mons. Partially collapsed lava tubes are visible as chains of pit craters, and broad lava fans formed by lava emerging from intact, subsurface tubes are also common.[18] Evidence of Martian lava tubes has also been observed on the Southeast Tharsis region and Alba Mons.[19][20]

Caves, including lava tubes, are considered candidate biotopes of interest for extraterrestrial life.[21]

Notable examples

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See also: List of lava tubes
  • Iceland
    • Surtshellir – For a long time, this was the longest known lava tube in the world.[22]
  • Italy
  • Kenya
    • Leviathan Cave – At 12.5 kilometers (7.8 mi), it is the longest lava tube in Africa.[24]
  • South Korea
  • United States
    • Kazumura Cave, Hawaii – The world's most extensive lava tube, at 65.5 kilometers (40.7 mi), it has the greatest linear extent of any known lava cave.[26]

See also

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  • Caving – Recreational pastime of exploring cave systems
  • Geology of the Moon – Structure and composition of the Moon
  • Lava cave – Cave formed in volcanic rock, especially one formed via volcanic processes
  • Mars habitat – Facility where humans could live on Mars
  • Speleology – Science of cave and karst systems
  • Speleothem – Structure formed in a cave by the deposition of minerals from water

References

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lava tubes.
  1. ^ Kempe, Stephan (1 January 2012), "Volcanic Rock Caves", in White, William B.; Culver, David C. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Caves (Second Edition), Amsterdam: Academic Press, pp. 865–873, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-383832-2.00125-0, ISBN 978-0-12-383832-2, retrieved 12 February 2025
  2. ^ a b Kauahikaua, Jim; Cashman, Katharine V.; Mattox, Tari N.; Heliker, C. Christina; Hon, Ken A.; Mangan, Margaret T.; Thornber, Carl R. (10 November 1998). "Observations on basaltic lava streams in tubes from Kilauea Volcano, island of Hawai'i". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 103 (B11): 27303–27323. Bibcode:1998JGR...10327303K. doi:10.1029/97JB03576. ISSN 0148-0227.
  3. ^ Witter, Jeffrey B.; Harris, Andrew J. L. (January 2007). "Field measurements of heat loss from skylights and lava tube systems". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 112 (B1). Bibcode:2007JGRB..112.1203W. doi:10.1029/2005JB003800. ISSN 0148-0227.
  4. ^ Keszthelyi, Laszlo (10 October 1995). "A preliminary thermal budget for lava tubes on the Earth and planets". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 100 (B10): 20411–20420. Bibcode:1995JGR...10020411K. doi:10.1029/95JB01965. ISSN 0148-0227.
  5. ^ Greeley, R. (1 March 1971). "Observations of actively forming lava tubes and associated structures, Hawaii". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ^ a b Lemaire, Thomas; Morgavi, Daniele; Petrosino, Paola; Calvari, Sonia; Repola, Leopoldo; Esposito, Lorenzo; Di Martire, Diego; Morra, Vincenzo; Frondini, Francesco (1 November 2024). "Lava flow field development and lava tube formation during the 1858–1861 eruption of Vesuvius (Italy), unravelled by historical documentation, lidar data and 3D mapping". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 455: 108197. Bibcode:2024JVGR..45508197L. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2024.108197. ISSN 0377-0273.
  7. ^ Calvari, Sonia; Pinkerton, Harry (10 November 1998). "Formation of lava tubes and extensive flow field during the 1991–1993 eruption of Mount Etna". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 103 (B11): 27291–27301. Bibcode:1998JGR...10327291C. doi:10.1029/97JB03388. ISSN 0148-0227.
  8. ^ Peterson, Donald W.; Holcomb, Robin T.; Tilling, Robert I.; Christiansen, Robert L. (November 1994). "Development of lava tubes in the light of observations at Mauna Ulu, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii". Bulletin of Volcanology. 56 (5): 343–360. Bibcode:1994BVol...56..343P. doi:10.1007/BF00326461. ISSN 0258-8900.
  9. ^ Calvari, Sonia; Pinkerton, Harry (June 1999). "Lava tube morphology on Etna and evidence for lava flow emplacement mechanisms". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 90 (3–4): 263–280. Bibcode:1999JVGR...90..263C. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00024-4.
  10. ^ Polyak, Victor J.; Provencio, Paula P. (2020). "The 'hornito-style' lava stalagmites and lava column in Lava Column Cave, El Malpais National Monument" (PDF). New Mexico Geological Society Special Publication. 14: 37–40. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  11. ^ Handwerk, Brian (26 October 2009). "First Moon 'Skylight' Found -- Could House Lunar Base?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 10 October 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
  12. ^ "Lunar Lava Tubes Radiation Safety Analysis". Division for Planetary Sciences 2001 meeting. American Astronomical Society. November 2001. Archived from the original on 23 September 2002. Retrieved 7 August 2007.
  13. ^ Robinson, M. S.; Ashley, J. W.; Boyd, A. K.; Wagner, R. V.; Speyerer, E. J.; Ray Hawke, B.; Hiesinger, H.; van der Bogert, C. H. (1 August 2012). "Confirmation of sublunarean voids and thin layering in mare deposits". Planetary and Space Science. 69 (1): 18–27. Bibcode:2012P&SS...69...18R. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2012.05.008. ISSN 0032-0633.
  14. ^ Haruyama, Junichi; Morota, Tomokatsu; Kobayashi, Shingo; Sawai, Shujiro; Lucey, Paul G.; Shirao, Motomaro; Nishino, Masaki N. (2012), Badescu, Viorel (ed.), "Lunar Holes and Lava Tubes as Resources for Lunar Science and Exploration", Moon: Prospective Energy and Material Resources, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 139–163, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27969-0_6, ISBN 978-3-642-27969-0, retrieved 20 November 2024
  15. ^ Hooper, Donald M.; Ximenes, Samuel W.; Patrick, Edward L.; Wells, Ronald; Shaffer, Allison; Necsoiu, Marius (7 February 2023). "Leto Mission Concept for Green Reconnaissance of the Marius Hills Lunar Pit". The Planetary Science Journal. 4 (2): 26. Bibcode:2023PSJ.....4...26H. doi:10.3847/PSJ/acaf87. ISSN 2632-3338.
  16. ^ Honda, Tsutomu (10 March 2017). "Possible existence of lava tube cave under Marius Hills Hole of the Moon". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  17. ^ Kolvenbach, Hendrik; Mittelholz, Anna; Stähler, Simon Christian; Church, Joseph; Arm, Philip; Bickel, Valentin; Walas, Krzysztof; Grott, Matthias; Hamran, Svein-Erik; Karatekin, Özgür; Olivares-Méndez, Miguel Angel; Coloma, Sofia; Pagnamenta, Marco; Gumiela, Michal; Aaron, Jordan (2024). "LunarLeaper - A Mission Concept to Explore the Lunar Subsurface with a Small-scale Legged Robot". IAC 2024 Conference Proceedings. International Astronautical Federation. doi:10.3929/ethz-b-000695498.
  18. ^ Richardson, J.W. et al. (2009). The Relationship Between Lava Fans and Tubes on Olympus Mons in the Tharsis Region, Mars. Archived 28 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine 40th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Abstract #1527, Retrieved 19 June 2018
  19. ^ Zhao, Jiannan; Huang, Jun; Kraft, Michael D.; Xiao, Long; Jiang, Yun (15 October 2017). "Ridge-like lava tube systems in southeast Tharsis, Mars". Geomorphology. 295: 831–839. Bibcode:2017Geomo.295..831Z. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.08.023. ISSN 0169-555X.
  20. ^ Crown, David A.; Scheidt, Stephen P.; Berman, Daniel C. (June 2022). "Distribution and Morphology of Lava Tube Systems on the Western Flank of Alba Mons, Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 127 (6). Bibcode:2022JGRE..12707263C. doi:10.1029/2022JE007263. ISSN 2169-9097.
  21. ^ Idota, Tetsuya; Biagioni, Edoardo; Binsted, Kim (December 2018). "Swarm Exploration of Extraterrestrial Lava Tubes with Ad-Hoc Communications". 2018 6th IEEE International Conference on Wireless for Space and Extreme Environments (WiSEE). pp. 163–168. doi:10.1109/WiSEE.2018.8637325. ISBN 978-1-5386-4244-3. S2CID 61811871.
  22. ^ "Surtshellir-Stefánshellir System". Caves of Iceland. Showcaves. Archived from the original on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2007.
  23. ^ Calvari, S.; Giudice, G.; Maugeri, R.; Messina, D.; Morgavi, D.; Miraglia, L.; La Spina, A.; Spampinato, L. (18 September 2024). "Complex lava tube networks developed within the 1792–93 lava flow field on Mount Etna (Italy): insights for hazard assessment". Frontiers in Earth Science. 12. Bibcode:2024FrEaS..1248187C. doi:10.3389/feart.2024.1448187. ISSN 2296-6463.
  24. ^ Forti; Galli; Rossi (July 2004). "Minerogenesis of Volcanic Caves of Kenya". International Journal of Speleology. 32 (1/4): 3–18. doi:10.5038/1827-806X.32.1.1. Archived from the original on 9 April 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2017.
  25. ^ Barclay, Jennifer (27 April 2012). "10 Reasons Travelers Can't Keep Away from Jeju Island". CNN Travel. Archived from the original on 24 December 2015. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
  26. ^ Gulden, Bob (21 June 2011). "World's Longest Lava Tubes". Archived from the original on 15 May 2006. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
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